Canada in Space |
VOL. 8, No. 1, 15-26
Canada has been a space-faring nation since early in the space age. In the thirty years since the first entry into space via the scientific satellite Alouette 1, Canadians have become world leaders in areas specifically related to Canadian needs and the Canadian environment. This article shows how, following that initial achievement, Canadians went on to acquire the knowledge and industrial capability that enabled them to exploit the potential of space in the fields of satellite communications, earth observation, and space science. This paper reviews the Canadian space story focusing particularly on communications satellites. The background of the development of the first Canadian communications satellite, Anik A, is outlined. And the significance and highlights of the innovative Hermes program that further established the Canadian leadership role in space are described.
Le Canada a compté parmi les premières nations à voyager dans l'es-pace. Dans les trente ans qui ont suivi le lancement du satellite scientifique Alouette 1, le Canada a développé une compétence de haut calibre en ce qui concerne ses besoins et son environnement. Le présent article raconte comment les Canadiens ont donné suite à cette première performance en développant les savoirs et la capacité industrielle qui leur ont permis d'exploiter le potentiel de l'espace dans les domaines des communications par satellite, de l'observation de la terre et des sciences de l'espace. L'histoire du Canada dans l'espace, celle du développement de son premier satellite de communications Anik A et des successeurs font l'objet de ce texte, qui souligne aussi la signification et les événements saillants du programme Hermès, dont les innovations ont contribué à confirmer la place du Canada parmi les leaders internationaux dans le monde de l'espace.
Editor's Note:
The history of distance education in Canada is interwoven with the invention of communications technologies, the expansion of education, especially adult education, and the initiative of individual Canadians. One of the communications technologies that has had a profound effect on distance education is satellites, a technology taken for granted today and hence rendered largely invisible to most educators and learners. The experiments in the 1970s demonstrated the viability of communications satellites, led to the establishment or expansion of educational communications agencies, and resulted in spin-off educational activities. The articles by Doris Jelly, Terry Kerr, and Judy Roberts et al. form a trilogy on the early years of Canada's communications satellites in which Jelly traces Canada's space story, Kerr describes the introduction of the educational applications of satellites, and Roberts et al. report on the experiments with satellites for telemedicine in Newfoundland.
Note de la rédaction :
L'historique de l'enseignement à distance au Canada est indis-sociable du développement des technologies de communication, de la croissance du secteur de l'éducation - en particulier celui destiné aux adultes - ainsi que d'une multiplicité d'initiatives individuelles. L'avènement des communications par satellite, notamment, a eu des retombées considérables; devenues un acquis, elles sont aujourd'hui occultées aux yeux de la majorité des enseignant(e)s et des apprenant(e)s. Les expériences menées au cours des années 1970 ont démontré la viabilité de ces satellites, permis le développement d'organismes de communication éducative et donné lieu à des activités de formation périphériques. L'article de Doris Jelly, celui de Terry Kerr et celui de Judy Roberts et al. offrent un trio de visions sur les premières années des communications par satellite au Canada. Jelly raconte l'expérience du Canada dans l'aventure spatiale; Kerr décrit l'introduction des applications pédagogiques des satellites; Roberts et al. font état des expériences menées à Terre-Neuve dans le domaine de la télémédecine.
The "space age!" What an array of associations the expression brings to mind - marvellous achievements pushing our experience and knowledge far beyond the dreams of yesterday. So today, the concepts of deep-space probes, space walks, and even space stations are accepted as commonplace. But now, mid-way through the fourth decade since the first artificial satellite circled the earth in 1957, let us take stock of the accomplishments during that period. What role has Canada played? Who were the players? How did they decide what to pursue? What of the future?
Canada was a "space-faring" nation right from the beginning of the space era, co- operating and competing on the international scene. In the years following the 1962 launch of the first Canadian satellite, Alouette I, Canada achieved success by focusing the limited resources on a few specific areas with potential for high returns (Barrington, 1979; Chapman, Forsyth, Lapp, & Patterson, 1967; External Affairs Canada, 1984; Hartz & Paghis, 1982). They do not include spectacular exploits, such as landing a man on the moon or a probe on Venus. Those have been left to the wealthier countries. Nor do they include large expenditures related solely to military objectives. In this account we trace the thread of the Canadian story related to communications satellites, the most significant application of space technology in Canada and worldwide.
Canada's major entries into space during the first decade were through scientific programs. These were the series of Alouette-ISIS satellites and the Black Brant rockets, vehicles for carrying research instruments into the upper atmosphere. Scientists were motivated by the need for better knowledge of the ionosphere - the electrified layer that reflected short-wave radio signals - at that time the only means of communicating with the North. The main experiments carried by the satellites were sounders to probe the ionosphere from above. When Alouette I was launched in September, 1962, Canada became the third nation to have built its own satellite for orbit. The spacecraft was a scientific success, and at the same time, a significant knowledge base was acquired in the technology of building and operating satellites. The reliability and extraordinary longevity of all the satellites in the series were unparalleled, and with the phenomenal success of the program, Canadians acquired the technical competence, the confidence, and the credibility to undertake even more ambitious space projects.
By the mid-1960s, it was becoming evident that other types of satellites held great potential to satisfy social, economic, and political needs of the country. They could help to overcome the enormous distances and to cope with the severe Canadian climate. At the same time, scientists were learning that the ionosphere in the North was too variable to ever support good short-wave radio communications. But with satellites it would be possible to deliver television programs in both languages to the whole country, and everyone, no matter where they lived, could be linked to the telephone system. Earth observation satellites could survey the earth to provide information for improved weather forecasting, for resource management, and for environmental monitoring. So in 1967, the year of Canada's centennial, the emphasis of Canada's space program was refocused on satellite applications. Communications was accorded top priority. The high technology of satellites was seen as important in forging connections among far-flung communities at the beginning of Canada's second century, as the railway had been at the time of Confederation. Thus, with the launch of Anik A1 in 1972, Canada became the first nation to have a domestic satellite in geostationary orbit. At the same time, the potential of earth-observation technology was being realized by gaining access to U.S. satellites.
Although the government played a strong leadership role in fostering research and development for the betterment of the nation, there have been many other players. Canadian industry was intimately involved as an active partner with government from the early days of the Alouette and Black Brant programs. Recognition must also be given to the contributions of universities and the operating agencies, particularly Telesat Canada and Teleglobe Canada Inc. Important roles have also been played by satellite users, with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, in particular, being a world leader.
A major consideration of all of Canada's space programs has been the development of space technology and the encouragement of a competitive space industry. This thrust led to Spar Aerospace becoming a prime contractor for spacecraft and later for construction of the Canadarm, the Canadian contribution to the U.S. shuttle program. In the 1980s, Canadian interest in the shuttle program and in space in general was heightened by the introduction of an astronaut program. The symbolism of a Canadian in space had a wide public appeal.
In reviewing the developments of Canada's space program, credit for some specific concepts or developments may be traced to specific individuals. In most instances, however, contributions came from several individuals and institutions, and it was enthusiastic teamwork that achieved the goals. Leaders who had been dedicated young scientists in the 1930s and 1940s created environments to foster the innovative teams that threw themselves with vigour into the space programs at the end of the 1950s. Three of these leaders were Frank Davies, who headed the Defence Research Telecommunications Establishment at the time Alouette 1 was built; Donald Rose, who initiated space research at the National Research Council of Canada; and Balfour Curry, who fostered a strong auroral research group at the University of Saskatchewan. Building on the foundations established by those "elder statesmen" of the space era in Canada, leaders emerged in each of the relevant disciplines. Honours and awards were bestowed upon individuals and on teams.
The one individual who stands out as the champion of the Canadian space program is John Chapman, the leader of the Alouette program. His foresight and influence, although not always appreciated at the time by his peers, were essential throughout the Alouette-ISIS program, the formation of the Department of Communications, the David Florida Laboratory, the CTS/Hermes program, and the establishment of a Canadian prime contractor. He was chairman of the Interdepartmental Committee on Space until his death in 1979 and was awarded the 1979 McNaughton Award posthumously, with the citation: "For his vision and leadership in recognizing the potential of satellites in Canada's future utilization of space." He was truly the architect of the Canadian space program throughout the formative first 20 years (Franklin, 1980).
The Alouette program was particularly significant in the story of Canada in space. It was the cornerstone on which many of the later achievements were based. It was an audacious concept that was implemented with incredible success. (The team, led by John Chapman, demonstrated that they could not only build a satellite but also build one that was one of the most complex satellites of the day.) With the two Alouettes and the later ISIS satellites, they carried on one of the most successful (by anyone's account) scientific satellite programs at that time. As a result, Chapman was catapulted to prominence in the estimation first of the international community and then of the government of the time. Having established credibility with Canadian and NASA officials, he continued to provide strong leadership to the space program in Canada for more than two decades. Expertise developed by the Alouette team was applied to major space activities in Canada for years to follow.
By 1966, a multitude of diversified, space-related interests competed for support, and at the same time a threat of domination of space technology by the USA was perceived. The government of Canada commissioned a special study by a committee led by Chapman to establish a basis for a policy on space research in Canada. The committee submitted a report in early 1967, a year when nationalist feelings were particularly strong. The Chapman report recommended that the central theme of the space program in Canada be the application to specific Canadian needs. Prime requirements were identified at that time as communications and earth observation.
In the Chapman report, space technology was seen to be "so directly related to the needs of a large, sparsely populated country" that, as a consequence, "the elements of space technology vital to Canada must be under Canadian control." An important part of the strategy recommended in the report placed emphasis on building a Canadian industry to meet Canadian needs and to market Canadian products abroad. This strategy was to underlie all that followed. One element of the strategy was the development of a prime contractor. This element has been realized through Spar Aerospace Limited in Toronto, which, by teaming up with the space group of RCA Limited of Montreal, formed a Canadian firm with competence in many aspects of space technology. The need for environmental test facilities for space simulation led the Department of Communications to the construction of the David Florida Laboratory at the Communications Re-search Centre (CRC) outside Ottawa. One recommendation of the report was not immediately realized. This concept, which would be reiterated at intervals over the next 20 years, was the formation of a central co-ordinating and contracting space agency. Even after the announcement in 1986 that such a space agency would be formed, the space program continued to be coordinated by an interdepartmental committee, while political forces battled over whether the agency would be located in Ottawa or Montreal. The site eventually chosen was St. Hubert, south of Montreal, and in 1990, the Canadian Space Agency was officially established by an act of Parliament.
Going back to the late 1960s, other significant developments occurred (Dohoo, 1986; Galt, 1983). In 1969, a Department of Communications (DOC) was formed with Eric Kierans, a strong federalist from Quebec, as the first minister. Allan Gottlieb was appointed deputy minister with John Chapman as assistant deputy minister research. DOC included the communications regulatory sections of the Department of Transport and the research facilities of the Defence Research Telecommunications Establishment (DRTE), which became the Communications Research Centre. The last satellite of the scientific Alouette-ISIS series was cancelled, and the Communications Technology Satellite program was initiated.
DOC represents Canada internationally through organizations such as the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). In an early move, DOC laid claim to prime positions for Canadian satellites in the geostationary orbit. DOC continues to represent Canadian interests in negotiating for slots for additional satellites and in the effective use of the radio spectrum.
Telesat Canada was incorporated in September 1969 to provide domestic satellite communications. David Golden was the first president of the private corporation that was owned jointly by the Canadian telecommunications companies and the federal government until 1992, when the government share was sold. The government activity to specify a satellite system for Canada was taken over by Telesat.
A nation-wide competition held to name the new satellites attracted thousands of suggestions. The name chosen was "Anik," which means "brother" in the Inuit language. Anik A1 was launched by NASA on a Thor-Delta launch vehicle at Cape Canaveral on 9 November 1972. Canada thus became the first nation to have a satellite in the geostationary orbit for domestic communications. Anik A2 was launched on 20 April 1973 as a backup, and Anik A3 was kept on the ground until 7 May 1975.
With the Anik A satellites, long-held dreams could be realized. Quality telephone service would be available in northern communities, and television programs could reach every region in the country. Canada would thus have the first national television service via satellite. Telesat's first major customers were the TransCanada Telephone System, CNCP Telecommunications, Bell Canada, and the CBC. Systems were installed to provide heavy route, east-west telephone service; extension of telephone service to the North; and distribution of French and English television programming. For the first time, the Stanley Cup and Grey Cup broadcasts could be received in real-time in all parts of the country.
The introduction of communication satellites had not been universally well received. For instance, the provincial telephone companies of the prairie provinces had not welcomed satellites that would deprive them of revenues from all telephone calls between east and west. In 1970, a communications conference was held in Yellowknife as a dialogue between government, industry, and the northern people (Department of Communications Canada, 1970). The capabilities of satellites to deliver television to the North were extolled. Native people, naturally, perceived this as a threat to their cultures. They vigorously insisted on being involved in communications planning so that they could state their priorities, which were for communications in the North, including telephone and radio broadcast services in their own languages. Officials were made aware that northern groups had not been adequately consulted. This experience had an effect on the concept of the CTS/Hermes and Anik B programs, which were designed by DOC to respond to users' needs.
At the same time, the citizens of Teslin in the Yukon were distressed when they learned that their community was too small to merit a "dish" to receive CBC television. According to DOC rules, only Telesat could own earth stations. Nevertheless, the people of Teslin persisted, and in 1974 they contracted with Miller Communications to install the first non-Telesatowned earth station.
While Telesat Canada was introducing satellite services on a commercial basis, the Communications Research Centre (CRC) of DOC was involved in several programs to develop new communications satellite technology and new uses. The major undertaking was the Communications Technology Satellite (CTS), an experimental program jointly sponsored by NASA, to pioneer an entirely new concept in communications satellites (Davies, Day, Jelly, & Kerr, 1979; Hartz, 1982; Jelly, 1978, 1983; Paghis, 1977).
The CTS would be the highest-powered satellite in orbit at that time. It was made possible by a new high-power, high-efficiency transmit tube developed for NASA. The satellite would be the first to operate at higher frequencies (designated as the Ku band) that were not subject to interference from terrestrial systems nor to regulated limits on power levels. It was to be the prototype for direct-broadcast satellites (DBS) that would transmit television directly to individual homes.
The CTS was launched in January l976 and was later christened Hermes by the Hon. Jeanne Sauvé, Minister of Communications. In Greek mythology, Hermes was the messenger of the gods.
The USA and Canada each conducted programs of experiments to make use of Hermes. The Canadian program was developed by Bert Blevis and implemented by a team led by George Davies. John Day was responsible for developing the hardware, and Terry Kerr and Doris Jelly co-ordinated development of the experiments to use it. Many of the experiments were in the form of field trials of new communications services sponsored by the providers of services. There were trials of tele-health, tele- education, tele-conferencing, community communications, and direct-to-home broadcasting. In Canada, many such services must be provided in large regions where people live in isolated communities. Satellite systems are ideally suited to support such services by providing communications independent of distance.
DOC supplied the earth stations and installed them for a sequence of user trials. The user terminals had antennas ranging from 3 m in diameter to l m for telephony and as small as 0.6 m for television receive only (TVRO). The stations (the smallest in use at that time) could be installed on the user's premises, often on roof tops, which was a novel concept in those days.
The field trials demonstrated that the earth stations were very flexible. They could be installed quickly and were easy to operate by the users. The Hermes program was used to try exciting new approaches in meeting the needs for health, social, and education services in Canada. Interaction was often seen as an essential component. Using television via the satellite, medical specialists in London, Ontario, monitored physicians in an operating room in Moose Factory, 900 km to the north, and provided support over a telephone channel. Night school students in Dawson Creek and several other communities in British Columbia receiving lectures from the British Columbia Institute of Technology in Vancouver saw the instructors and asked questions, all via the satellite. Geologists at a remote camp in Quebec had an experimental telephone link to Montreal and during the trial were able to discuss evacuation plans for a real crisis when their camp was threatened by a forest fire. Native groups were able to try satellite systems to serve their needs. Inuit communities in northern Quebec and Indian communities in northern Ontario had their own temporary radio networks. Natives in Fort Chipewyan and other Alberta locations participated in a trial in which informative television programs were produced by a native communications society in Edmonton. The distant participants could interact with resource people in the studio via a telephone channel.
The small TV receive-only units were of special interest. In the first major demonstration of television reception using the small dishes, the CBC showed the broadcasters of the world how well they worked during the 1976 Olympic Games in Montreal. They were used to receive CBC programs at homes in Labrador and TVOntario programs at schools in northwestern Ontario. In 1977, one was set up in the garden of the Canadian Trade Counsellor during an international seminar on satellite communications in Lima, Peru, and demonstrated the reception of a Stanley Cup hockey game from Canada. These field trials were the first demonstrations that the DBS concept was feasible for delivering television directly to homes. They stimulated further trials and considerable interest in Europe, South America, Japan, and Australia, as well as the USA. In 1987, the Department of Communications and NASA were jointly awarded an Emmy for engineering achievement related to development of Ku band technology for broadcasting.
Towards the end of its life in 1979, Hermes was moved in the geostationary orbit to provide demonstrations of satellite services in Australia. The small TV receive-only stations were moved around, bringing television for the first time to the "outback." These trials were helpful to the Australians in planning their domestic satellite system, Aussat, which was introduced in 1985. In November 1979, shortly before its planned shutdown, Hermes failed to respond to the signals sent from the control station at the Communications Research Centre west of Ottawa. After almost four years, twice its planned lifetime, it was listed as "missing in action." The success of the Hermes communications experiments prompted the government of Canada to support a further series of trials with Anik B, the second-generation satellite launched by Telesat Canada (Department of Communications, 1982).
Several concepts that were introduced with the Hermes experiments were demonstrated to be operationally feasible during the Anik B trials and were continued on to commercial operation. These included the delivery of TV Ontario educational programming throughout Ontario by satellite; the formation and operation of the Knowledge Network, an educational channel in British Columbia; and the formation of the Inuit Broadcasting Corporation. To show their appreciation, the Inuit presented DOC with a beautiful carving in memory of John Day, the CRC systems manager. Other services, such as a tele-health network in Newfoundland and tele-conferencing for the government of Ontario, tried first by satellite, were continued via terrestrial facilities.
There were several important outcomes of the Hermes and Anik B programs. The concept of satellite communication was revolutionized by the very small earth stations that could easily be erected almost anywhere without being constrained by interference to sites far from cities. In particular, the small TVROs proved the concept of DBS to be technically feasible, and less power was required from the satellites than had been originally expected. The hands-on experience helped to demystify the media for users and led to the development of a community of users sophisticated in the applications of satellite technology. Canada was seen as a world leader in the use of satellites for social services, especially for health and education. Visitors from many other countries came to DOC, Telesat, TV Ontario, the Knowledge Network, and to other satellite users to learn how to introduce satellite services effectively.
Now, in the 1990s, the potential of satellites to provide basic broadcast and telephony services has been achieved, and specialized networks provide links throughout Canada. The Anik C and Anik D series have been replaced by two Anik Es, the largest and most powerful commercial satellites yet. While none of the Anik series of satellites has equalled the power of Hermes, the Ku frequency band continues to be used at medium power levels. A combination of improved satellite and earth station technology makes small earth stations practical for many applications even if true direct-to-home broadcasting has not been realized. Satellite systems have been widely adapted to serve educational needs of the provinces. British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Quebec each have a dedicated satellite channel, and Ontario uses two, one for English and a second for French-language programming. The Inuit Broadcasting Corporation has evolved into Television Northern Canada providing programs in several languages of the Original Peoples and English. And new services will soon be introduced by MSAT, a new satellite to be launched in 1994 that will expand the concept of cellular telephones to the whole country. Thus, Canadians continue in the forefront of communications satellite technology.
* This paper is based on excerpts from Canada: 25 Years in Space by Doris H. Jelly, published in 1988 by Polyscience Publications Inc. in co-operation with the National Museum of Science and Technology. Copies are available from Polyscience Publications Inc., P.O. Box 148, Morin Heights, Quebec J0R 1H0 for $17.00.
Barrington, R. E. (1979, Second Quarter). Canadian space activities in the past quarter century. Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal, 25(2), 153–169.
Chapman, J. H., Forsyth, P. A., Lapp, P. A., & Patterson, G. N. (1967). Upper atmosphere and space programs in Canada. Ottawa: Queen's Printer.
Davies, N. G., Day, J. W. B., Jelly, D. H., & Kerr, W. T. (1978, October 1–8). CTS/Hermes - Experiments to explore the applications of advanced 14/ 12 GHz communications satellites. In L. G. Napolitano (Ed.), Astronautics for peace and human progress, Proceedings of the International Astronautical Congress 29th Dubrovnik (pp. 319-336). Pergamon Press.
Department of Communications Canada. (1970, September 9–11). Northern communications conference record. Proceedings of the Conference sponsored by DOC, DIAND, Government of the NWT, Government of the Yukon Territory. Yellowknife, N.W.T.
Department of Communications. (1982). Anik B. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada.
Dohoo, R. M. (1986). The development of Canadian satellite communications. In T. L. McPhail & D. C. Coll (Eds.), Canadian contributions to telecommunications (pp. 33–46). Calgary, Alta: University of Calgary.
External Affairs Canada. (1984). Satellites: The Canadian experience. Ottawa: author.
Franklin, C. A. (1980). John Herbert Chapman 1921–1979. Proc. Royal Soc. Canadian Series IV, XVIII, 68–72.
Galt, G. (1983, October). Unscrambling the future. Saturday Night, pp. 15–26.
Hartz, T. R., & Paghis, I. (1982). Spacebound. Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre.
Jelly, D. H. (1978, July). A report on the process of implementation of Hermes experiments (CRC Technical Note 694).
Jelly, D. H. (1983). DOC's role in the development of social services satellite delivery systems. In K. Feher (Ed.), Proceedings of Satellite Communications Conference.
Paghis, I. (Ed.). (1977). Hermes (the communications technology satellite): Its performance and applications (3 vols.). Ottawa: Royal Society of Canada.
Doris H. Jelly is Curator of Space Technology at the National Museum of Science and Technology where a major exhibit on Canada in Space opened in June 1992. She worked previously as a research scientist at the Communications Research Centre, Ottawa in areas related to space, first, in ionospheric research and later in the Hermes program of satellite experiments.